21 Lessons for the 21st Century

Pundits and laypeople alike fear that a third world war is imminent, in part because the worlds of 2018 and 1914 seem eerily similar. To Harari, there are several key differences between 2018 and 1914 that hopefully make another global war less likely. For one, governing elites in 1914 had concrete examples of how successful wars resulted in economic prosperity and political power. Most empires at the time owed their status to successful wars. In contrast, there have been very few successful invasions since WWII. One of the greatest victories—the end of the Cold War—did not involve major military force.

In addition, the current economy is vastly different from past economies. Economic assets in the past were primarily material, making it easy for groups to enrich themselves through conquest. Today, however, economic assets are primarily technology and knowledge, which are not easily conquered through war. Finally, current military technology, including nuclear weapons and cyberwarfare, are “high-damage, low-profit technologies” (181), which is the exact opposite of past military technology. While Harari hopes that the fact that major global powers are not familiar with recent successful wars is the best guarantee of peace, he also cautions that “we should never underestimate human stupidity” (182). =

Most humans believe that their nation, religion, and culture is the most important in the world. To Harari, these self-important narratives are ludicrous. To illustrate this point, he uses Judaism as an example, “since it is more polite to criticize one’s own people than to criticize foreigners” (186). While many believe that a universal code of ethics emerged from Judaism, in fact morality has deep evolutionary roots predating modern humans. Social mammals, such as wolves and chimpanzees, have their own ethical codes.

Thus, Harari reinforces that Judaism and its Christian and Muslim offspring did not create human morality. To Harari, Judaism for many centuries “was the humble religion of a small persecuted minatory that preferred to read and contemplate rather than to conquer faraway countries and burn heretics at the stake” (199). Because of this, Judaism has played only a small part in humanity’s history. The irony with religions is that they preach humility, yet also believe they are the center of the world. Harari strongly believes that readers need to “puncture the hot-air balloons inflated by their own tribes” (187) and take humility more seriously.

In this chapter, Harari explores whether religious faith in God is a necessary condition for morality. There are two versions of God: “the cosmic mystery, or the worldly lawgiver” (200). The main feature of the former is that humans cannot say anything concrete about the divinity, whereas the opposite is true for the latter. A holy book represents the missing link between these two elements, because it includes regulations that the faithful believe God wrote. Past peoples invented these stories, however, to legitimize certain social norms and political structures. The faithful believe that we need a supernatural being to act morally, which assumes that there is something unnatural about moral behavior. However, there is a natural basis for morality, supported by all social mammals exhibiting moral behavior. To Harari, morality does not mean following the divine commands of divinities, especially because these commands do not always make people act morally. Rather, morality is about reducing suffering. 

The secular code, which forms the foundation of modern science and democracy, “enshrines the values of truth, compassion, equality, freedom, courage, and responsibility” (208). This code, like other ethical codes, represents something people should aspire to rather than social and political reality. In fact, it is hard to govern nation-states following this demanding code. Secularism is based on “the open-ended quest for truth and compassion” (213), yet nations, especially in times of emergency, must often act quickly and forcefully. Governments do not have time to ponder the truth and what the compassionate response might be. As a result, “secular movements mutate into dogmatic creeds” (214).

Some of these creeds have been harmful to humanity, such as Stalinism, whereas others, such as the doctrine of human rights, have been beneficial. Secularism, like other religions, creeds, and ideologies, has its own shadows, or mistakes. In contrast to most traditional religions, secularists are willing to at least admit its mistakes. To Harari, he would rather trust those who are willing to admit their ignorance than believe they are infallible. This ability has never been more important as humans make decisions around biotechnology and artificial intelligence, which could alter the history of life.