Beyond Freedom and Dignity

The concept of autonomous man is akin to the concept of free will. In this context, autonomous refers to the idea that human behavior does not have causes but is created by autonomous choices. Thus, humans are held accountable for their behavior. Skinner argues against the existence of autonomous man. He claims that behavior arises from antecedent and environmental causes.

Operant conditioning is a behavioral modification process that uses rewards and penalties referred to as positive and negative reinforcers, respectively. Eating when hungry is a simple example of operant conditioning, in which the behavior of eating is positively reinforced by feeling sated. Sunburn is an example of a negative reinforcer—individuals will avoid staying in the sun for too long after experiencing a painful sunburn.

Reinforcers are consequences of behaviors that impact the probability of the behavior recurring again. A foul taste after eating a new food, for instance, will lower the chance that the person will eat that food again, while a pleasant taste will increase the chances of the person eating the food again. Reinforcers are not feelings; rather, emotions are consequences of the reinforcing event. Reinforcers may be positive, like pleasant taste, or negative, like foul taste.

Contingencies refer to the interrelatedness of the events preceding a behavior, behaviors, and the consequences of behaviors. Skinner asserts that behavioral contingencies refer to the meaning and through processes that drive action: “Contingencies are ubiquitous; they cover the classical fields of intention and purpose, but in a much more useful way, and they provide alternative formulations of so-called ‘mental processes’” (149).

A reflex is a comparatively simple behavior exhibited by most organisms. Reflexes are behaviors exhibited in response to environmental stimuli. Blinking when a puff of air is blown into one’s eye is an example of a reflex behavior.

Skinner defines freedom as the ability to free oneself from aversive stimuli. Freedom may be simple, such as being free to remove one’s hand from a hot surface, or can be more complicated, such as a person running away from an attacker or a student complying with a teacher’s demands to avoid punishment.

Dignity arises when someone’s actions are perceived as deserving of praise. Credit is the appreciation or admiration an individual or group shows to the acting individual. Skinner rejects dignity and credit, arguing they are pre-scientific constructs—if there is no free will, then there is no logic behind praising certain actions.

Punishment, in the context of the text, includes actions or phenomena that prevent unwanted behaviors. Skinner argues that punishment is illogical and ineffective; he instead proposes that humanity should construct societies that make punishable behavior less likely to occur.

The term “controller” is consistently used to describe an individual or body that implements contingencies to control the behavior of others. Examples of individual controllers are teachers or parents, and examples of group controllers include religious organizations and governments.

Skinner identifies three main types of values—personal values, values for the good of others, and cultural values. Personal values are those that benefit individuals. Values for the good of others are those that promote the well-being of groups or institutions, and cultural values are those that relate to broad cultures. Personal values are sometimes at odds with group or cultural values; individuals may end up sacrificing some personal reinforcement or defect from their social groups.