Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America

A caudillo was a wealthy landowner who commanded the loyalty of many followers that in turn garnered him political influence. Early post-colonial Latin America (the 1800s) saw the rise of many caudillos, some of whom achieved prominent positions in the government. One of the more prominent caudillos was Juan Manuel de Rosas, who was governor of Buenos Aires, or Antonio López de Santa Anna in Mexico.

Costumbrismo was a literary and artistic movement in the mid-19th century that focused on depicting and defining national customs and lifestyles of that period in Spain and Spanish America. José Agustín Arrieta was the most prominent Mexican columbrista painter, and Luis Pérez wrote the character Pancho Lugares, who is mentioned in Chapter 5, Page 147.

Creole (criollo in Spanish) denotes someone of Spanish descent born in the Americas. In Brazil, they were often referred to as brasileiros, but the word crioulo also means Creole. The Creoles were some of the first to call for independence toward the end of the 18th century because they feared losing influence and control to native-born Spaniards or Portuguese.

An encomienda was a Spanish practice where groups of Indigenous people were entrusted to a Spanish conqueror. The people either worked for him or paid him tribute. In turn, it was the responsibility of the holder of the encomienda to instruct the people in Christian doctrine. The practice predates the Encounter. The Spanish awarded encomiendas in Muslim parts of Iberia during the Reconquest.

The Estado Novo (Portuguese for New State) refers to the presidential regime in Brazil under Getúlio Vargas (1937-1945). In 1937, Vargas had the Brazilian Constitution changed, which gave him dictatorial powers. During this era all communist sympathies were strictly illegal and suppressed. Industrial production was increased as a means to combat the world-wide Depression, and foreign investment in Brazil increased. The era came to an end when a bloodless military coup ousted Vargas.

Fueros were special concessions granted by Spain to members of the clergy (fuero eclesiástico) and military (fuero militar). In the 18th century, Spain sought to limit fueros to lower secular clergy. Some historians surmise that this was what led many of the lower clergy to join the insurgency for independence.

Hegemony is the politico-social structure that allows a small group to dominate a much larger population by convincing them that the hierarchical system is natural and inevitable. Hegemony is the term used to explain how small nations like Spain and Portugal were able to rule for three centuries over lands far greater in mass and population than Iberia.

Indigenismo was a literary, artistic, and political movement during the late 19th and early 20th century that esteemed Indigenous heritage and sought to incorporate Indigenous people into national life. Indigenismo ran parallel to the broad political movement of nationalism throughout Latin America in the first half of the 20th century.

Liberation theology was a small movement among some Latin American Catholic clergy in the 1960s that sought greater freedom and equality for the lower social classes. Some feared liberation theology ran too close to communism and there were attempts to suppress clergy who preached it.

Marxism is a political, social, and economic theory based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxism focuses on (among other topics) a materialist interpretation of history between the haves and the have-nots—between the capitalist wealthy and the poorer labor force. The writings of Marx and Engels were influential and spurred the development of others like Vladimir Lenin. The rise of communism in the 20th century is directly linked to Marx and Engels’s writings, particularly The Communist Manifesto (1848).

Mestizo is a term used to denote people of diverse racial backgrounds, particularly those of Indigenous and European (i.e., Spanish) descent. The Portuguese used a similar word, mestiço, which usually referred to African-European descent. Chasteen uses the term in the book to specifically refer to those in Spanish Latin America.

Nativism is a political attitude that emphasizes those of native birth and spurns outsiders. Nativism was a strong force used by many Latin Americans to garner support for independence. Nativism has also been used to prejudice poor immigrants in countries like the US or Argentina. Nativism was central to Miguel Hidalgo’s rhetoric during Mexico’s early struggle for independence.

Neoliberalism is a modern version of liberalism. It developed in Latin American countries during the 1990s following the end of the Cold War and as a reaction against the many dictatorships that had arisen during that period. The most prominent neoliberalist governments in Latin America were found in Argentina, Chile, Peru, Brazil, and Mexico.

Oligarchy is a word derived from Greek, meaning “rule by the few.” In Latin American countries between 1880 and 1930, oligarchies of powerful landowning families, who used their wealth and economic control and influence to govern the nation, arose, particularly in Central American countries that were too small to industrialize. It was often the alternative to a dictatorship ruled by one individual.

Populism was a style of politics that addressed the working and middle classes in contrast to the wealthy elite. Populism was most conspicuous in Latin America following World War II. Perhaps the most successful and well-known populist government was the Presidency of Juan Perón in Argentina and his wife, Eva Duarte.