Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes

Under Mu’awiya, the Umayyad dynasty firmly established itself, transitioning the Islamic leadership into a hereditary monarchy. A council symbolized this shift when Mu’awiya’s successor, Yazid, was forcefully declared, signaling the end of any pretense of democratic selection for the khalifa. Yazid’s reign saw the assassination of Hussein, Ali’s youngest son, during his pilgrimage to Mecca. Hussein was considered an Imam, or spiritual leader. Hussein’s death at Karbala, where he fought with a small band against overwhelming odds, became a pivotal moment, embedding the Shia-Sunni divide in Islamic history. Shi’ites considered Hussein’s martyrdom a tragic event; it transformed him into a symbol of resistance and spiritual purity for Shia Islam, emphasizing the Imam as a source of spiritual guidance and divine connection.

The Umayyad period marked significant expansion and consolidation of the Islamic empire, extending its reach and influence. Mu’awiya was a skilled ruler who utilized both diplomacy and military might to manage and expand the empire. The Umayyads were practical rulers, focusing on the administration, economic prosperity, and growth of the empire, even as they faced internal dissent and religious criticism. They nurtured religious institutions, supported scholars, and built mosques, fostering the flourishing of Islamic civilization.

Economically, the Umayyads promoted trade, agriculture, and urbanization, leading to urban centers’ prosperity. The creation of waqfs (charitable foundations) underlined the Umayyads’ complex relationship with wealth, power, and religious piety, offering a way for the emerging Muslim elite to express their religious devotion through philanthropy.

Despite their practical and often secular approach to governance, the Umayyads played a crucial role in spreading Islam as a religion and as a cultural force. They adopted Arabic as the official language and incentivized conversion, which facilitated the integration of conquered peoples into the Islamic world, contributing to the empire’s cohesion and cultural vibrancy.

The Abbasid Age marks a pivotal era in Islamic history, spanning from 737 to 961 CE. This period saw the rise and consolidation of Abbasid power, following the overthrow of the Umayyad dynasty. Under the Abbasids, the Islamic world witnessed a significant expansion of its territories, stretching from Spain in the West to India in the East. The Abbasid caliphs centralized their power and fostered the codification of Islamic doctrines, establishing a strong relationship between religious scholars and political authorities.

Despite the promise of equality and brotherhood under Islam, the Abbasid society was stratified, with Arabs occupying the upper echelons and non-Arabs facing discrimination. The Persian population, in particular, resisted Arabization and contributed to the growing ethnic and cultural diversity within the Islamic empire.

The Abbasids dealt with internal challenges, including the discontent of the Shi’ite and Kharijite sects. The former continued to agitate for recognition of Ali’s descendants, while the latter called for a puritanical adherence to Islamic principles. The martyrdom of Hussein at Karbala intensified the Shi’ite cause, embedding a deep sectarian divide within Islam. Abu Muslim emerged as a significant figure during this period, leading a revolution against the Umayyads and paving the way for the establishment of Abbasid rule. However, the new Abbasid caliphs, starting with al-Saffah and continuing with al-Mansur, consolidated their power through ruthless tactics, including the massacre of surviving Umayyad members.

The Abbasid era is also renowned for its cultural and economic prosperity. The construction of Baghdad as the new capital symbolized the grandeur of the dynasty. The city became a global hub of commerce, culture, and learning, attracting scholars, traders, and intellectuals from various parts of the world. The Abbasid caliphs, particularly Haroun al-Rashid, are romanticized in literary works such as Arabian Nights, although the reality of their rule was complex and often authoritarian.

The period from 632 to 1111 CE was significant for the development of Islamic doctrine, the formation of a class of religious scholars (Ulama), and the emergence of philosophers and Sufis. Initially, the fundamental tenets known as the Five Pillars defined Islam, but after the death of Prophet Mohammed, Muslims faced the challenge of interpreting and codifying his teachings to guide their community.

Scholars worked to collect, authenticate, and compile Hadiths (sayings and actions of Mohammed) to supplement the Qur’an’s teachings. This effort led to the development of the science of Hadith and the creation of extensive collections. These collections, alongside the Qur’an, formed the basis of Islamic law and ethics, known as Shari’a.

The Ulama emerged as a powerful social class, guiding the community’s religious life and legal matters. Their exhaustive knowledge of religious texts granted them authority, and they commanded respect and influence within Muslim society. Simultaneously, Muslim philosophers engaged in integrating the vast knowledge they encountered from Greek, Indian, Persian, and other civilizations into an Islamic worldview. They translated and studied works of philosophy, science, and medicine, contributing to various fields of knowledge. The philosophers, however, faced challenges from religious authorities, especially when their ideas seemed to contradict traditional Islamic teachings.

A notable conflict arose between the rationalist Mu’tazilites, who emphasized reason and argued that the Qur’an was created by people and subject to interpretation, and traditionalists like Ahmed Ibn Hanbal, who insisted on the primacy of revelation and strict adherence to the original teachings of Islam. The debate reached a point where the Mu’tazilites, with state support, persecuted those holding opposing views, including Ibn Hanbal, who became a symbol of resistance against the imposition of philosophical interpretations on Islamic doctrine.

Over time, the conservative stance of scholars like Ibn Hanbal gained popularity and influence, leading to a decline in the dominance of philosophical and rationalist approaches within Islamic thought. This period solidified the foundations of Islamic legal, ethical, and theological systems and marked a critical phase in the intellectual and spiritual development of the Muslim world.

The emergence of Sufism represented a spiritual quest for direct experience and union with God, going beyond the formal religious duties codified by scholars. Sufis engaged in intense spiritual practices, such as continuous recitation of the Qur’an and names of Allah, and adopted a lifestyle characterized by voluntary poverty and asceticism. They were not interested in creating a new sect but sought a more personal connection with the divine.

Sufis like Rabia al-Basri and al-Hallaj became renowned for their intense love and devotion to God, often expressed through poetry and mystical teachings. However, their unconventional expressions and claims led to tensions with orthodox scholars. The conflict reached a peak with al-Hallaj, whose extreme assertions caused his execution, yet his death did not stop the spread of Sufism. Instead, it continued to attract followers seeking spiritual transformation.

Sufism’s emphasis on direct communion with God, characterized by love and the pursuit of inner purity, offered an alternative to the more rigid legalistic approach of Islamic scholars. The movement fostered the development of spiritual practices and institutions, contributing to the religious and cultural life of the Muslim world. Notably, the philosopher and theologian al-Ghazali played a crucial role in reconciling orthodox Islamic theology with Sufi mysticism. His spiritual crisis led him to embrace Sufi practices, and through his influential writings, he integrated Sufism into the framework of orthodox Islam. Al-Ghazali’s works provided a synthesis that respected the law (Shari’a) and recognized the importance of the mystical path (tariqa) to experiencing God.

However, al-Ghazali’s critique of causality and emphasis on revelation over reason marked a turning point, leading to the decline of philosophical inquiry and natural science in the Islamic world. His stance, combined with societal changes, contributed to a shift toward more conservative and traditional patterns, including the role of women in society. The later years of the Abbasid caliphate saw increasing social breakdown and a longing for stability, which reinforced patriarchal norms and the separation of public and private spheres, with women being confined more strictly to the private domain.