Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes

Assault From the West

The 11th to 14th centuries witnessed significant turmoil in the Islamic world, primarily due to the Crusades, originating from a relatively obscure and impoverished Europe. Europeans, largely unacquainted with the Muslim world, embarked on the Crusades, prompted by Pope Urban II’s call to reclaim the Holy Lands from Muslim control. This period saw Europe’s gradual emergence from a subsistence economy, marked by agricultural innovations and the resurgence of trade and towns. Pilgrimages to the Holy Lands became common, with the Seljuk Turks’ control over the region leading to friction due to their harsh treatment of Christian pilgrims.

The First Crusade, initiated by less prepared groups like Peter the Hermit’s followers, was initially dismissed by Muslim rulers, who were later caught off guard by the more organized and militarily adept European knights. Despite the Crusaders’ success in establishing states like the Kingdom of Jerusalem, atrocities, including widespread slaughter and instances of cannibalism, as in Ma’ara, marked their presence. The Muslim response to the Crusades was initially fragmented, with internal divisions and the sinister maneuvers of the Assassins contributing to the disarray.

Gradually, figures like Zangi and Nuruddin began to foster a sense of unity and purpose among Muslims, culminating in the rise of Saladin. Saladin’s charismatic leadership and military prowess, coupled with his noble character, galvanized Muslim resistance, leading to the recapture of Jerusalem and the eventual stalling of the Crusader momentum. The Crusades, spanning two centuries, failed to make a lasting impact deep within the Muslim world and did not significantly stimulate Muslim interest in Europe.

The Crusades did, however, have a notable effect on Europe. They exposed Europeans to the wealth and sophistication of the Muslim world, spurring an increase in trade and a desire for Eastern luxuries. This interaction laid the groundwork for future European exploration and expansion. As the Islamic world began to recover from the Crusades, it soon faced a new and more devastating threat, marking the beginning of another tumultuous chapter.

Assault From the East

The Mongols, originating from the Central Asian steppes, were a nomadic tribe that excelled in horse riding and archery and lived a mobile life in yurts. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, born as Temujin, the Mongols unified and transformed into a formidable military force. Genghis Khan’s charisma and the loyalty of his diverse group of nokars (comrades in arms) played a pivotal role in this transformation.

In 1211, the Mongols initiated an assault on China’s Sung Empire, swiftly overcoming its defenses. By 1218, they turned their attention to the Middle World, entering the landscape of the Islamic world, with various fragmented Turkish tribes and kingdoms like the Khwarazm-Shahs. The Mongol invasion was characterized not by sheer numbers but by effective strategy, superior technology, and unparalleled mobility and speed.

The Mongol invasion, under Genghis Khan and his successors, led to widespread devastation across cities like Bokhara and Balkh, with a substantial human toll. They also destroyed critical agricultural infrastructure like the qanat system, transforming prosperous regions into deserts. This period was marked by mass killings, with numbers running into the millions according to some historical accounts, though these figures are subject to debate.

After Genghis Khan’s death in 1227, his descendants divided his empire, with Hulagu Khan taking charge of the core Muslim territories. Hulagu continued the Mongol campaign of destruction, including the annihilation of the Assassins, a militant group that had terrorized the region for years. The Mongols’ siege of Baghdad in 1258 was particularly catastrophic, ending the Abbasid caliphate and resulting in the massacre of hundreds of thousands and the destruction of the city’s cultural and intellectual heritage.

However, the Battle of Ayn Jalut in 1260 halted the Mongols; the Mamluk general Baybars defeated them. This victory by the Mamluks, a military caste that would come to rule Egypt as a meritocratic regime, marked a turning point. Over time, the Mongol rulers of the region began converting to Islam, integrating into the local culture, and even adopting a more sympathetic stance toward the local population. Notably, Ghazan Khan’s conversion to Islam signaled a shift toward coexistence and recovery. In this way, Islam and the cultural fabric of the region slowly began to reemerge from the shadows of the Mongol devastation.

The Mongol massacres marked a cataclysmic but relatively brief period, akin to the Black Death in Europe or the World Wars of the 20th century. Its immediate destruction was immense; however, leading historians like Bernard Lewis somewhat controversially downplayed its impact by highlighting the rapid recovery and absorption of the Mongols into Islamic civilization. Genghis Khan and his successors, including Hulagu, were compared favorably to their descendant Timur (Tamerlane); however, Genghis Khan’s bloodlust was gratuitous and lacked the strategic rationale of his predecessors.

Despite the devastation, the Mongol conquests prompted significant theological and cultural shifts within the Muslim world. Theologians grappled with the implications of their defeats, leading to diverse responses. One such response was from the jurist Ibn Taymiyah, who advocated a return to the practices of the early Muslim community (Salafism), asserting that the defeats were a consequence of Muslims straying from true Islam. He also expanded the concept of jihad to include fighting not just for defense but also for the expansion of the Muslim community. His views resonated in a society still recovering from external attacks, fostering unity through a strict adherence to doctrine. However, his literalist and sometimes aggressive stance made him controversial, often landing him in prison.

In contrast, Sufism offered a gentler, more inclusive response to the period of turmoil. It emphasized personal spiritual development and mystical union with God, leading to the formation of Sufi orders that provided spiritual guidance and social support. Unlike the asceticism of Christian monastic orders, Sufism integrated spiritual practice into everyday life, contributing to a rich cultural and mystical tradition within Islam.

Ibn Taymiyah’s doctrines laid the groundwork for modern Salafism, while Sufism’s ethos of chivalry and honor, often traced back to Ali, contributed to a unique knightly culture within the Muslim world. These responses to the Mongol invasion illustrate the dynamic and multifaceted nature of Islamic civilization’s recovery and evolution following one of its darkest periods.

The Ottomans (About 700-1341 AH)

The Ottomans, emerging around 700 AH (1300 CE), notably shaped the post-Mongol recovery of Islam, particularly in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey). This region, a frontier between Turkish Muslims and European Christians, had experienced significant instability due to conflicts among the Seljuks, Byzantines, and Crusaders. However, the nomadic Turks, displaced by the Mongols, found a home in the chaotic, lawless landscape of Asia Minor. They favored this environment for its autonomy, which allowed them to live by their own laws and traditions.

Sufi orders played a role in converting these pastoral nomads to Islam, establishing a spiritual network that interconnected various societal groups in this fragmented region. This included the Akhi guilds, crucial in providing social stability by supporting artisans and merchants. Mystic vagabonds and dervishes, such as Kalendar and Bektash, also roamed these lands, spreading spiritual fervor and diverse interpretations of Islam. Jalaludin Rumi, a notable Sufi poet, influenced Islamic mysticism with his poetry, symbolizing the quest for a connection to the divine source.

The turbulent region gave rise to ghazi groups, warrior bands reminiscent of Christian military orders during the Crusades. These ghazis, seeking fame and fortune, often carved out territories for themselves, proclaiming emirates. This fragmentation eventually led to the rise of the Ottomans, a dynasty initiated by Othman and marked by a succession of capable rulers. They expanded their territory through strategic warfare and alliances, absorbing other ghazi states and imposing a sophisticated social order.

The Ottomans, particularly under rulers like Murat I and Bayazid I, integrated technological advancements and military strategies, such as the devshirme system, which brought in boys from Christian lands to train as elite soldiers called the janissaries. This system not only provided military strength but also served as a social mobility mechanism, creating a loyal elite directly serving the sultan.

Constantinople’s fall to Mehmet the Conqueror in 1453 marked a significant turning point in the history of this region. It symbolized the revival of Islamic power, transforming the city into a bustling, diverse capital named Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire, under Mehmet and successive rulers, developed an interconnected societal structure, balancing power among various groups and institutions, from religious authorities to trade guilds and Sufi brotherhoods.

At its height, during Suleiman the Magnificent’s reign, the Ottoman Empire was a formidable global power, controlling significant territories and influential cities. The empire’s intricate social fabric, blending various ethnic, religious, and cultural groups under a sophisticated governance system, made it one of history’s most enduring empires.

The Safavids (906-1138 AH)

The Safavid dynasty (906-1138 AH) was a significant Shi’ite Islamic power in Persia, contrasting with the Sunni dominance of the Ottoman Empire. Originating from a peaceful Sufi brotherhood led by Sheikh Safi al-Din, the Safavids underwent a transformation under successive leaders, adopting hereditary leadership, militarizing, and ultimately embracing Twelver Shi’ism. The Qizilbash, or “redheads,” an elite military group, symbolized this shift with their distinctive red hats representing the 12 imams of Shi’ism.

Ismail, a key figure in Safavid history, emerged as a charismatic and divinely revered leader. At just 15, he declared himself shahanshah (or emperor) of Iran, favoring Persian identity and Shi’ite ideology over Arab and Turkish influences. He established Twelver Shi’ism as the state religion, enforcing it strictly and even persecuting Sunnis. This religious stance and Ismail’s claim to divine guidance led to tension and conflict with neighboring Sunni realms, notably the Ottomans.

The pivotal Battle of Chaldiran between Ismail’s forces and the Ottomans marked a significant moment, with the Ottomans gaining a military victory thanks to their superior firepower. However, the Safavids quickly recovered, with the battle effectively setting the enduring border between modern-day Iran and Turkey.

Despite this initial setback, the Safavid Empire flourished, especially under Shah Abbas the Great. The empire became renowned for its cultural achievements in textiles, ceramics, painting, and architecture. Safavid architecture, characterized by airy and intricately detailed structures, culminated in the transformation of Isfahan into a breathtakingly beautiful capital, earning it the accolade “Isfahan, half the world” (189). Although the Safavid and Ottoman Empires were distinct in many ways, they shared a civilizational unity, each contributing to the Islamic Golden Age.

The Moghuls (Roughly 900-1273 AH)

The Moghul Empire, founded by Babur, was a significant Islamic power, comparable to the Ottomans in wealth and strength. Babur, a contemporary of Shah Ismail and a claimed descendant of Timur-i-lang (Tamerlane) and Genghis Khan, inherited the kingdom of Farghana at age 12. Despite early losses and wanderings, Babur’s resilience and military prowess, combined with his artistic and romantic nature, led him to establish an empire that stretched across modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar (formerly Burma).

Babur’s military success, notably his victory at Panipat against the sultan of Delhi, marked the rise of the Moghuls as the third major Muslim “gunpowder” empire. The dynasty enjoyed a period of stability and brilliance under six successive rulers, including Babur’s grandson Akbar the Great.

Akbar, known for his policy of sulahkul, or “universal tolerance,” was a ruler who sought to integrate his empire’s Hindu majority with its ruling Muslim minority. He abolished the jizya tax (a tax paid by non-Muslims), opened government positions to Hindus, and nurtured a culture of religious and intellectual curiosity. Akbar’s innovative administrative reforms and his creation of a new religion—Din-i Illahi, which syncretized features of various religions, including Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, and Christianity—reflected his inclusive approach, though the latter did not gain widespread acceptance.

Akbar’s grandson, Shah Jahan, renowned for constructing the Taj Mahal in memory of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, further enhanced the empire’s architectural legacy. However, Shah Jahan’s son Aurangzeb represented a stark contrast, focusing on religious orthodoxy and reversing many of Akbar’s liberal policies, which led to significant internal strife.

In the early 17th century, a traveler across the Muslim world, spanning from Indonesia to Morocco, would have encountered a coherent civilization with common elements such as the dominance of the Turks in politics, Persian language in literature, and Arabic in religious practices. Despite local differences, the Islamic world shared cultural and societal norms, including the prominence of the Ulama, the division of public and private realms, and the seclusion of women in the private sphere. In 1600, the Islamic world, with its interconnectedness and uniformity in various aspects of life, might have seemed like the dominant global civilization. However, unseen shifts in Europe were already setting the stage for changes in the global balance of power.

In the aftermath of the Crusades, Europe witnessed significant transformations that reshaped its socio-political landscape, religious beliefs, and intellectual pursuits, while also igniting a zeal for exploration. The residues of the Crusades led to the emergence of influential military religious orders like the Templars and the Knights Hospitaller. Although direct military campaigns into the Muslim world diminished, the crusading spirit lived on, fueling a burgeoning desire for Eastern trade goods, particularly spices and sugar. This desire, coupled with the barriers posed by Muslim-controlled regions, prompted European advancements in seafaring, with notable figures like Prince Henry the Navigator spearheading exploratory endeavors that culminated in landmark discoveries like Christopher Columbus’s encounter with the Americas in 1492.

Parallel to these exploratory achievements, Europe was undergoing a cultural and intellectual revival. The Renaissance, marked by the influx of ancient knowledge through Greek texts and a focus on humanism, challenged established Church doctrines. This intellectual climate nurtured the seeds of religious reform, leading to significant movements such as the Protestant Reformation. This period of questioning and reform paved the way for the empowerment of the individual and a reassessment of the Church’s authority over secular matters.

The scientific landscape of Europe also experienced a transformation. Freed of religious dogma, thinkers like Copernicus, Newton, and Galileo made contributions in various fields, including astronomy, physics, and anatomy. This era, known as the Scientific Revolution, was characterized by the formulation of the scientific method and a series of discoveries that fundamentally altered humanity’s understanding of the natural world.

Simultaneously, the concept of the nation-state began to take root, gradually replacing the feudal systems of the past. The Protestant Reformation partly influenced this shift, which promoted individualism and challenged the Church’s dominance. Landmark treaties like the Treaty of Westphalia and the Peace of Augsburg were instrumental in this transition, reinforcing the sovereignty of states over religious matters and contributing to the rise of nationalism.

The economic landscape was also evolving. The wealth flowing in from the Americas, combined with the emergence of nation-states, gave rise to mercantilism, an economic theory that emphasized the accumulation of wealth and resources by the state. This theory advocated for national economic policies that prioritized the inflow of gold and the maintenance of a favorable balance of trade.

While Europe was experiencing these groundbreaking changes, the Muslim world, rich in its own cultural and historical traditions, remained largely unaware of the shifts reshaping Europe. This divergence set the stage for future interactions and conflicts between these two civilizations, each with its unique trajectory and worldview.