Everything's an Argument

Arguments come in various styles. The style of an argument refers to its formality, sentence structure, and word choice. Word choice plays a large role in stylizing an argument. For academic arguments, formal style is appropriate. These arguments use incisive vocabulary and technical language to relay information to a serious audience. A paragraph from Economist magazine argues that digital coursework will be a big competitor for traditional universities. The speaker uses economic terms such as “startup costs” and “economies of scale,” relaying what appears to be distressing information for universities in a level tone. Using colloquial or informal language like slang or first- and second-person narration can build a more intimate relationship with the audience. Some colloquialisms can cause confusion in uninformed audience members, such as the prolific slang and pop culture references in a Rolling Stone song review. Jargon, or vocabulary specific to a particular field, can also confuse or distance an audience.

Word choices also carry connotations, or meanings associated with a word that are not denotations, or dictionary definitions. For example, three different arguments about a campus hunger strike carry three very different tones simply by changing the word choice. The first uses terms and phrases like “students from the Labor Action Committee,” “hunger strike,” and “call attention” to carry a neutral, objective tone (311). The second uses words like “agitators,” “radicals,” and “self-induced starvation” to portray a negative image of the event, while the final argument uses words and phrases like “champions,” “protest,” and “scandalously low wages” to portray a positive image (311).

Effective arguments use a variety of sentence structures to keep the audience’s attention. Short sentences can make a powerful statement, and long sentences can build drama, while medium sentences reliably convey information. Sentences using parallel structure, where the beginning of a sentence repeats across several sentences, can underscore ideas. Complicated sentences, sentences with interruptions, and sentence fragments can also call attention. Lunsford and Ruszkiewicz advise readers to “tinker, tinker, tinker” with sentences until they “feel right” (313).

The authors also recommend paying close attention to punctuation. Each punctuation mark has a different effect on the reader, whether it’s the “finality of periods,” the “tentativeness of ellipses,” or the “jolt” in the exclamation mark (314). Jane Mayer uses a series of exclamation points to express the desperation of suspected terrorists at Guantánamo. The pause of a semi-colon can create a sense of contrast or comparison but can also feel old-fashioned. Colons draw attention to the additional information that follows. Dashes also highlight added information, sometimes by inserting the information in the middle of a sentence when used in a pair. Ellipses build hesitation by creating a pause.

Figurative language is another way to add style to an argument. Devices like metaphors and allusions dramatize information and ideas, leaving a lasting effect on the audience. The two major types of figures of speech are tropes, which twist meaning, and schemes, which play on the arrangement of words. Tropes include allusions, analogies, antonomasia, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, rhetorical question, signifying, simile, and understatement.

An allusion makes a comparison to something outside the argument, like an event or famous literature. For example, one might say someone’s met their Waterloo when they make a mistake that costs their career, comparing that person’s downfall to that of Napoleon, whose defeat at the Battle of Waterloo ended his era of history. Analogies make explicit comparisons that emphasize similarities. For example, Rachel Toor compares running to writing based on the similarity that they both take discipline.

Antonomasia replaces a name with a descriptive phrase, such as the “Queen of Soul” for jazz singer Aretha Franklin. Hyperbole exaggerates for effect, like a tabloid magazine headline. Irony occurs when words communicate meaning in conflict with their definitions. For example, in Julius Caesar, Antony repeatedly calls Caesar’s assassins “honourable” before stating that “honourable men […] stabb’d Caesar” (321), abruptly shifting the message of his speech. Lunsford and Ruszkiewicz also include a sarcastic and ironic response to Hillary Clinton denying her and her husband’s role in America’s economic inequity, putting a spin on the meaning of “hard work” (321).

A metaphor indirectly compares two things, usually something unfamiliar to something familiar, to clarify an argument. Scientists Watson and Crick describe DNA as a helix and a zipper, two recognizable items. Author Benjamin Sáenz describes himself as a “son of the border,” which has been “[his] prison” and “[his] only piece of sky” (322). Metonymy stands an object in for a concept, such as “the pen is mightier than the sword” (322). “Wall Street” and “the Pentagon” are also commonly used examples of metonymy. Rhetorical questions are posed without an expected response, such as, “Who cares?” (323).

Unique to African American English is signifying, or humorously poking fun at another. The major characteristics are “indirection, ironic humor, fluid rhythm, and a surprising twist at the end” (324). For example, in the Boondocks cartoon, Huey appears to agree with Jazmine before overwhelming sarcasm indicates he was really making fun of her.

A simile directly compares two things. An excerpt from the New York Times includes this simile: “Einstein found that space, and time too, [responds] much as a trampoline does to a jumping child” (325). Wired magazine includes several similes in one of its articles, such as “smooth as a pint of chocolate Häagen-Dazs” (325). Understatement quietly expresses an idea, such as Rosa Parks refusing to surrender her seat to a white person. Particularly significant arguments benefit most from understatement as audiences expect the opposite.

A scheme is the other major type of figurative language. Schemes leverage the arrangement of words to achieve effect. They include anaphora, antithesis, inverted word order, and parallelism. A speaker uses an anaphora when she repeats words or phrases at the beginning of consecutive sentences or phrases, such as President Lyndon Johnson repeating “there is no issue” to drive home his point that the correct side is so plain that there shouldn’t even be an argument.

Parallelism uses repeated phrasing within a sentence or across sentences. This scheme emphasizes relationships. One famous example is the first sentence of Charles Dickins’s A Tale of Two Cities (1859): “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times” (328). Antithesis contrasts using parallel structure, such as Samuel Johnson’s assertion that “marriage has many pains, but celibacy has no pleasures” (327). Inverted word order shifts words out of the typical subject-verb-object order, as in Yoda’s observation that “hard to see, the dark side is” (327).

Lunsford and Ruszkiewicz end the chapter by advising readers to consider what level of formality is appropriate. When in doubt, the authors advise using proper titles and avoiding first names, slang, jargon, or references the audience may not understand.

• An argument’s style refers to its formality, sentence structure, punctuation, and word choice.
• Stylistic elements manipulate the audience’s attention and dramatize ideas.

This chapter explores the following questions:

• What is visual rhetoric?
• How can visual rhetoric influence an audience?

Visual rhetoric, including art, t-shirts, film, and statues, deeply influences audiences. An excerpt authored by Kevin Kelly describes the proliferation of screens in US society, noting the increase in short clips and filmmakers. The authors remind readers that visual rhetoric has been used throughout human history, though without the modern ease of dissemination. The authors evidence this shift with Snapchat and multimedia connectivity. Visuals can influence people powerfully, and the authors find no reason not to use them given their ready accessibility and the expectation of digital formats in college courses.

Some visuals create pathos, or an appeal to emotion. Design elements function to create an evocative response. Lunsford and Ruszkiewicz reiterate the ease of creating visuals, providing the suggestion to use GoPro camera footage for evidence in an argument about campus transportation issues. However, they warn that not all visuals work and so advise readers to include them purposefully.

To use visuals purposefully, a speaker must know their purpose. The authors present an image of Earth from the moon as a visual that could support arguments for space programs, environmental preservation, or antinationalism. Colors can influence emotions, whether in the formatting of text or in images. Contrast between words and background can enhance readability, as can avoiding busy backgrounds. The authors recommend testing the visual presentation out on friends and family for feedback.

Images can also build ethos, or credibility. Just as people compose their Facebook profiles and posts to project a particular self-image, so do speakers design the visual presentation of an argument. Many groups and organizations display an emblem or logo to signal their credibility and status. These emblems may appear on letterheads, websites, or even the presidential seal on the president’s podium. Visual evidence can function in a similar manner, such as providing a photo of oneself participating in a bike race to display personal experience, or including an audio interview with a biker in an argument on competitive biking safety issues.

Selecting a visual to establish trustworthiness includes choosing a medium, or the method in which a person shares their argument. A website displays technical skills, while a handout can portray competence. Consider the audience and the argument’s purpose when determining the medium and follow established guidelines, such as the clean text of a college research paper.

Each design element makes a statement about the speaker. Careful formatting reveals someone who pays attention to detail, and dressing up for a presentation portrays maturity. Fonts carry connotations too. Serif fonts, or those with flourishes at the ends of each letter, convey a warm tone, whereas sans serif fonts, which lack any flourishes, present a modern image. Font size, style, and capitalization can also effect tone—the larger, the louder. Readers should also ensure audience representation in any included images.

Visuals can support logos by organizing information in a way audiences understand. Some suggestions include parallel headings, similar font design across related sections, lists or boxes for emphasis, and strategic arrangement. Most designs look best surrounded by white space, but others may thrive on organized chaos. Images like charts, graphs, and maps can sometimes convey information more persuasively than words. Pie charts show “parts to the whole,” such as an ethnic breakdown of a school’s population. Graphs compare something over time, like the number of bike riders in the United States. Diagrams or drawings call attention to details. Maps denote location and distribution. Geographical information system (GIS) technology merges geographical and textual/numerical data to make arguments about large-scale trends and movements, such as traffic patterns. Timelines illustrate the passage of time, while screenshots can provide evidence. Infographics show a motley of visual data.

Following style guidelines like those outlined in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association or the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers displays professionalism. Ethical use of information requires respecting copyright rules. Some visuals need permission prior to use, and all visuals should be documented.

• Visual rhetoric is any viewed form of expression.
• Visual rhetoric evokes emotional responses, builds credibility through attention to detail, and supports logos by making information more easily understandable.

This chapter explores the following questions:

• When do oral presentation occur?
• How does a speaker prepare for an oral presentation?
• What makes an oral presentation effective?

College students can confidently present a paper using traditional (such as MLA or APA) formatting. Printed texts facilitate the explanation of ideas and can be easily distributed, electronically or otherwise. Some occasions may call for oral arguments, such as in a discussion or presentation.

Oral arguments occur often in school settings, both formal and informal. Lunsford and Ruszkiewicz acknowledge that some readers may be shy to speak in front of audiences, but they encourage readers to evaluate speakers and emulate ones who are more effective. Effective speakers stay focused, elaborate on ideas, and consider the whole group, whereas less effective speakers overtake the conversation, focus on themselves, or use humor to deflect.

Lunsford and Ruszkiewicz advise shy readers to start participating in conversations with short agreements or questions. Other ways to effectively participate in a class discussion include preparing by completing assigned readings, listening and taking notes, speaking concisely, asking questions, occasionally stopping the group to ensure common understanding, being specific, using names, and inviting others to participate.

Sometimes college students must prepare presentations to cultivate transferrable professional skills. Effective presenters know their audience, including their values, ideas, and needs, use an easily understandable structure and style, interact with the audience, include visuals, and practice.

The authors advise readers to begin preparing by assessing the rhetorical situation. Determine the purpose, audience, content, structure, and style. When identifying the audience, consider their knowledge, socioeconomic characteristics, and expectations. For content, consider topic, scope, type of argument, necessary level of detail, and amount of evidence. Choose structure and style based on audience expectations and the rubric if graded. Lunsford and Ruszkiewicz share a college student’s outline for an oral report that includes the requirements, his introduction’s agenda and relevant background, and the what, who, why, and so what of his solution.

Another suggestion is to pay attention to the details. Know the time limits of the presentation as well as the necessary supplies, visuals, and software. Consider speaking without a slideshow to save on time. Check the setting ahead of time to scope the layout, furniture, and speaking area. When preparing with a group, plan individual contributions and rehearse presenting together.

Most college presentations allow notes or require a written script. When writing a script, speakers should remember that the audience will be listening rather than reading the argument. Include an effective introduction and conclusion, and ensure clarity in organization, structure, diction, and syntax. Strong introductions are memorable and often include a provocative statement, an anecdote, or vivid imagery. The introduction should state the focus, scope, and sequence of the presentation to contextualize the argument. The conclusion should emphasize the message without simply repeating what’s already been said. Leave the audience with the significance of the argument.

Spoken arguments must be organized clearly so the audience can follow along, so detailing the upcoming structure and signaling the beginning, middle, and end is an effective strategy. Signposts such as next or finally can mark shifts between topics. Using straightforward sentence structures and concrete words and examples can clarify abstract ideas. Lunsford and Ruszkiewicz include a text and an oral version of the same argument from a student. The text version uses longer, more complex sentence structures and advanced vocabulary, while the oral version includes more expressive punctuation and simpler diction and syntax.

Arguments seeking to arouse the audience use repetition, parallelism, and climactic order. For example, in Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech, he repeats the terms “check” and “insufficient funds” in a parallel structure to describe necessary reparations for the treatment of African Americans, building up to his call to end racial prejudice (355).

Visuals like charts, posters, and slides can also make an oral argument more effective. Successful visuals can be seen by all audience members and are quickly processed. The authors recommend 24-point font for headings, 18-point font for subheadings, and 14-point font for all other text. Visual signposts like images of the people being described or key points of evidence can help guide the audience through the argument. As with other elements of arguments, try visuals out on friends and family to gather input.

Lunsford and Ruszkiewicz remind readers to accommodate all audience members, considering visual, hearing, and cognitive impairments by describing images, using closed captioning, and handing out a speech outline.

Though some speakers may experience anxiety before presenting, the adrenaline can make a speaker more engaging. Some strategies to improving presenting skills include practice, taping oneself, planning an outfit, resting up, breathing deeply, using eye contact, standing, allowing time for questions, and interacting with the audience as much as possible. Thank the audience at the end.

Some presentations will be remote, presented through a webcam. The same strategies apply to remote presentations, but the authors also emphasize practice, looking into the camera, and using proper posture.

• Oral presentations happen in academic and professional settings.
• Speakers can practice presentation skills by actively participating in class discussions. Prepare for a presentation by examining the rhetorical situation.
• Attention to detail, rehearsal, clear organization, and purposeful use of language and visuals contribute to an effective presentation.

This chapter explores the following questions:

• What is a multimedia argument?
• How do I analyze a multimedia argument?

Lunsford and Ruszkiewicz note that they have used examples from various nontraditional sources throughout the text to illustrate the many ways people argue. Online news sites and social media have expanded the sphere of persuasion in both purpose and method. Civic arguments have evolved from strictly oral to print to film, TV, and movies, to today’s highly accessible electronic media. Each medium has its advantages; for example, print books are easier to browse, while electronic books are convenient to read. These disparate advantages ensure the longevity of older mediums.

Newer media has varied content connected digitally. The explosion of online publishing created a wide range of platforms and audiences as well as a wide range of credibility. Audiences now make arguments themselves through comments and newsfeeds. Focused audience groups emerge around sites common to those with similar views. These groups create echo chambers of ideas, heightening emotional response, which can be powerful. Lunsford and Ruszkiewicz attribute President Obama’s election victory to his social media buzz.

Twitter quickly rose as people followed public figures. Follower counts now represent a figure’s ethos and influence based on how many people connect enough with that person to follow them. Social media platforms discourage logos due to their nature: short posts with little room for evidence, though hashtags (a keyword behind a pound symbol that links to other posts with the same tag) can link information, attracting an even larger audience.

Multimedia arguments do features key components that can be analyzed. Creators, distributors, medium, audience, content, purpose, and design can be examined for craft and function. When analyzing creators and distributors, consider who created and shared the argument. Identify their other work and determine their attitude and intention. Analyzing the medium includes examining the media, interaction, effect of the media on the message, and whether there’s an explicit claim. To analyze the audience, identify the intended audience and likely audience, how they interact with the platform and one another, and if participation is rewarded. Consider the content’s purpose, values supported, and emotions evoked. To analyze design, study the argument’s presentation, the site’s ease of navigation, the argument’s structure, any emphasized or downplayed ideas, any unique design traits, and the site’s influence on audience actions, such as clinking on links.

Participating in online activities can take rhetorical form. Arguments can be made through websites, videos, wikis, blogs, and social media. When planning a website, first identify the rhetorical situation (e.g., purpose, audience, and overall impression). Inspect appealing sites and emulate elements such as contrast, proximity, repetition, and overall impression. Elements like contrasting colors guides reader navigation, while proximity ensures like items are grouped closely together. Repetition creates consistency, and visuals create an overall impression or mood. Additional tips include using clear titles to make the homepage inviting, distinguishing content from navigation, and ensuring the audience can easily return to the homepage. Premade templates can aid in consistency. Support claims with links and visuals. Include online contact information, but not an address or phone number.

Videos effectively teach and document events. More sophisticated software can make a video appealing to audiences. Wikis, or collaborative websites, explore questions. When contributing material, craft arguments carefully and accurately. Blogs provide an interactive platform for many topics. Though they can be egotistic and spread misinformation, they are also easily accessible. Social media can be politically and culturally influential, and Lunsford and Ruszkiewicz advise readers to be cognizant of the quality of arguments made on social media platforms. Consider how to leverage social media in academic work, such as sourcing topics for essays or finding funding for large projects.