Mahabharata

The Mahabharata holds a central place in Hinduism and ancient Indian philosophy, reflecting the interplay between religious, ethical, and philosophical ideas that have shaped Indian thought. Composed over several centuries of oral tradition, this epic encompasses a wide range of nested stories covering themes including dharma (duty/righteousness), karma (action and its consequences), moksha (liberation), and bhakti (devotion), all of which are integral to South Asian religious philosophy. It is a sprawling, symbolic, and cosmological treatise rooted in the belief systems of ancient India, where the human, divine, and cosmic realms are interconnected.

The Mahabharata examines the intricacies of dharma, or moral duty, particularly when such duty conflicts with personal desires, familial loyalties, or societal expectations. Themes of karma, the law of cause and effect, are also omnipresent, suggesting that every action has consequences spanning lifetimes. The epic continually emphasizes that present circumstances—characters’ rises to power or tragic downfalls—are shaped by past actions, reflecting the cyclical nature of samsara, or the cycle of life, death, and rebirth. The Kurukshetra War, for instance, is not merely a human conflict but a cosmic battle between righteousness (dharma) and unrighteousness (adharma) playing out in the universe.

The Mahabharata’s religious framework is embedded in Hindu cosmology, which encompasses the four yugas, or cosmic ages, that represent the gradual decline of moral and spiritual order. After the first two ages, Satya Yuga (age of truth) and Treta Yuga (the age that witnessed three avatars of the god Vishnu), comes the Dvapara Yuga, the third cosmic age, which is characterized by a gradual decline in righteousness and virtue. The epic marks the transition from the Dvapara Yuga to the Kali Yuga, the age of darkness and moral decline. In the Dvapara Yuga, the moral and spiritual integrity of humanity begins to weaken, with only half of dharma (righteousness) remaining intact. During this era, virtues like truth and honesty still exist but are increasingly overshadowed by growing greed, jealousy, and conflict. While humans in this yuga are still connected to spiritual practices and divine intervention, the balance between good and evil is more precarious, setting the stage for the Kali Yuga. This cyclical view of time, in which the universe undergoes endless cycles of creation, preservation, and destruction, mirrors the cosmic narrative in which gods and humans have roles in maintaining or restoring order.

Gods and goddesses feature prominently in the Mahabharata, often influencing the course of human events to maintain cosmic balance. Krishna, as an avatar of the all-powerful Vishnu, is the most significant divine figure, guiding Arjuna and the Pandavas throughout the epic. Vishnu’s role as the preserver of the universe underpins the entire narrative, reflecting the Hindu belief that the divine descends to restore dharma whenever it is threatened.

Other deities, such as Shiva, Indra, and Durga, also play important roles. Shiva is portrayed as both a destroyer and a benefactor, representing the dual aspects of destruction and regeneration in the cosmic cycle. Indra, the king of gods and father of Arjuna, influences many events, highlighting the close relationship between human heroes and gods. Similarly, Durga, an important form of the mother goddess Mahadevi, is invoked before the great war, symbolizing the protective and transformative power of the feminine divine. The presence of these deities reflects the ancient Indian belief in a multi-layered, polytheistic cosmos, where the divine regularly intervenes in human affairs to uphold dharma and ensure cosmic harmony.

The role of divine intervention and fate is ever present. The gods frequently step into human affairs, nudging events toward their destined conclusion through either direct involvement or communication via symbolic signs. For instance, Krishna’s orchestration of key moments in the war and his ultimate counsel to Arjuna reflect the belief that divine will and fate often supersede human effort. The idea of daiva (fate) thus runs parallel to karma, suggesting that while individuals have agency, there are larger cosmic forces that also guide the unfolding of events.

The Mahabharata also introduces the element of bhakti (devotion) as a means of spiritual liberation. Krishna’s presence as Vishnu’s avatar brings the concept of Bhakti yoga to the forefront, emphasizing that surrendering to the divine and performing one’s duties with devotion to god leads to freedom from the cycle of rebirth. This focus on devotion reflects the evolving nature of Hindu spirituality during the time the epic was composed, where personal dedication to a deity, particularly Vishnu or Shiva, became a central means of attaining spiritual enlightenment.