River of the Gods: Genius, Courage and Betrayal in the Search for the Source of the Nile

“‘It is a great thing to be welcomed home by some little corner of the Great World, which takes a pride in your exploits, because they reflect honour upon itself,’ he wrote. ‘In the contrary condition you are a waif, a stray; you are a blaze of light, without a focus. Nobody outside your own fireside cares.’”

In Chapter 2, Millard notes that other British citizens viewed Burton as an outsider to British culture. Burton reinforces this perspective in his own writings, which Millard quotes. In the passage, Burton is reflecting on his successful ruse to impersonate a Muslim man to witness the Hajj. He understood that while what he did was a momentous undertaking, it would not bring him recognition or acceptance among his compatriots. For this reason, he did not immediately return to Britain from Saudi Arabia, instead heading to Egypt, which led him to be a ‘blaze of light without a focus’ for several years.

“Although he had yet to recover from dysentery that had plagued him since returning from Mecca, and he would soon have to sail to Bombay as his leave of absence from the East India Company was running out, Burton was not about to let any obstacle, physical or professional, prevent him from setting out in search of the source of the White Nile. It was not just a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. It was a chance that few men in the history of exploration had ever been given.”

This passage highlights what motivated Burton to lead the expedition to find the source of the Nile. Despite illness and professional obligations, a sense of adventure and competitiveness motivated Burton. Regarding the former, Burton had not been on an adventure since his pilgrimage to Mecca. For two years, he wallowed in Egypt. The expedition to find the Nile reinvigorated him. Regarding the latter, Burton wanted to be the first European to truly see the source rather than simply speculate about it

“‘I saw that he was going to lose his money and his ‘leave’ and his life,’ Burton would later write of Speke, marveling at his own disastrous decision. ‘Why should I have cared? I do now know.’”

One mystery that Millard tries to explain is why Burton allowed Speke to join his expedition to search for the source of the Nile. Burton and Speke were opposites. Despite these differences and Burton’s misgivings about Speke’s temperament and how this could impact the team’s cohesion, Burton still allowed him to join. Here, years later, Burton reflects on this decision in light of the two no longer being friends. Burton’s observation that Speke seemed indifferent to life and desperate for an outlet reflects the issues with Speke’s temperament that plagued their expeditions.

“‘This perhaps was scarcely the right time, [Speke] pointed out, ‘to dictate a policy which would be distasteful as well as injurious (in a monetary sense) to the people among whom we were about to travel and with whom it was highly essential to our interest to be on the most friendly terms.’”

Here, Speke accurately notes that Burton’s criticism of the abbanship system would have disastrous impacts on the expedition, reflecting The Dangers of Obsession, Ignorance, and Arrogance. Burton believed that he was defending Speke, who had been ill-treated by Sumunter, his abban. As a result, Burton pushed for Sumunter to face a trial with Speke as the lead prosecutor and Speke’s servants as witnesses. The trial ended with a harsh punishment for Sumunter, but Burton was still not satisfied, which is why he publicly criticized the abbanship system. The Somalis met his criticism with outrage, since they were proud of the system, and vowed revenge, leading to an eventual attack on the explorers.

“Turning to Speke [Burton] said, ‘Be sharp, and arm to defend the camp.’ Immediately stepping out of the tent, Speke found himself surrounded by chaos. As he stood trying to orient himself, he was suddenly hit by a rock that smashed into his knee, nearly knocking him down. Returning to the tent, as he later explained, to get a better view of the battle, he was stunned to hear Burton snap at him, ‘Don’t step back, or they will think we are retiring.’ Bristling at what he took to be a rebuke and, worse, an accusation of cowardice, Speke immediately launched himself back into the melee, firing ‘at close quarters into the first man before me.’”

The Somalis attack on Burton’s expedition team represents the start of Burton and Speke’s deteriorating relationship. During the attack, Speke steps outside the central tent, but steps back inside after seeing the chaos. Burton chides him since the enemies will think they are retreating. Burton does not think any more about his comment, while Speke is deeply wounded since he believes Burton is accusing him of cowardice. Speke does not say anything to Burton about his hurt feelings at the time or for several more years. Instead, he allows his feelings to fester, which causes him to feel deep resentment toward Burton.

“More galling even than Burton pointing out that he had failed to complete his expedition was the commentary that he had added at the end. ‘I venture to submit a few remarks upon the subject of the preceding diary,’ Burton wrote. ‘It is evident from the perusal of these pages that though the traveller…was delayed, persecuted by his ‘protector,’ and threated with war, danger, and destruction, his life was never in real peril.’”

Expedition leaders typically published the diaries of their subordinates. Thus, Burton added Speke’s diary to his own book’s appendices about the first expedition to find the source of the Nile. However, two things about this process upset Speke. The first is that Burton heavily edited his words. Worse, however, is that Burton added his own thoughts about Speke’s diary, blaming Speke for his failure to reach Wady Nogul due to his lack of knowledge about the region and its people and inability to control his crew. Speke was furious with Burton and privately thought about retribution.

“‘The tragedy again and again repeated of a great life maimed and marred by envious, eyeless mediocrities,’ one of his [Burton’s] early biographers would lament. ‘What might have been, what would have been.’”

Millard, like other biographers, emphasizes how Burton’s inability to see jealousy and envy directed toward him would lead to lifelong woes. Burton did not notice other people’s admiration for him. Unfortunately, this represents a character failing because often this admiration would morph into jealousy, envy, and resentment. Part of the rivalry between Burton and Speke was due to Speke’s own admiration turning to resentment—a circumstance which Burton failed to recognize until the two were bitter enemies.

“One day when Isabel visited the Romani camp, Hagar told her that they were about to leave. She had, however, cast Isabel’s horoscope, and she wanted to share it with her. Translating it from Romani for Isabel, she said, ‘You will cross the sea, and be in the same town with your Destiny and know it not. Every obstacle will rise up against you, and such a combination of circumstances, that it will require all of your courage, energy, and intelligence to meet them. Your life will be like one swimming against big waves; but God will be with you, so you will always win. You will fix your eyes on your polar star, and you will go for that without looking right or left.’”

Isabel rebelled against her mother during her youth by befriending the Romani who lived by the family estate. One of the Romani, a woman named Hagar, foretold to Isabel the above horoscope. This horoscope shaped Isabel’s life. From an early age, Isabel battled between being religious and wanting a life of adventure and danger. The horoscope confirmed that she could have both. More importantly, the horoscope also foretold how Isabel would meet her husband and what his name would be. Hagar’s predictions came true.

“‘Captain Burton…knew nothing of astronomical surveying, of physical geography, or of collecting specimens,’ Speke wrote, ‘so he pressed me again to go with him, and even induced the President of the Royal Geographic Society to say there need be no fear of money if we only succeeded.’”

Millard meticulously documents the change in Burton and Speke’s relationship from friends to enemies. Despite agreeing to be Burton’s second-in-command for the second expedition, Speke still felt resentment toward his fellow over Burton’s admonishment of him during the attack in Somaliland. Speke had yet to tell Burton about this offense. Instead, he began to paint Burton as an incompetent leader to others, as evidenced by his writings in the above passage. Here, Speke suggests that Burton needed him rather than the fact that Speke needed Burton.

“‘His good conduct and honesty of purpose,’ Speke would quickly learn, ‘are without parallel.’”

Bombay is the third key character that Millard introduces in her book. Despite spending much of his youth and early adulthood in slavery, Bombay emerged from this experience still incredibly kind rather than bitter. His addition to Burton’s second expedition likely saved the expedition from complete failure. Speke also comes to consider Bombay a friend. Despite hardening his heart to Burton, Speke cared deeply about Bombay, largely because of his loyalty, trustworthiness, and heart. Burton and Speke were not the only European explorers to work with Bombay. All of these explorers also underscored Bombay’s phenomenal character.

“‘In the solitude and silence of the dark,’ Burton wrote, ‘I felt myself the plaything of misfortune.’”

In public, Burton emphatically told his men that their second expedition to find the source of the Nile River would be successful. Privately, however, Burton was extremely worried. Burton recognized that his attempts to find the White Nile had been plagued by numerous mishaps, including dry seasons, monsoons, vicious attacks, inadequate supplies and men, and more. In addition, Burton was worried about Hamerton’s health and Speke’s increasing surliness. Burton knew that Hamerton’s death and Speke’s poor attitude would negatively impact the expedition. For all of these reasons, Burton believed he was “the plaything of misfortune.”

“He [Speke] came to fear most the painful, potentially fatal fevers, which, he wrote ‘attack the brain, and often deprive one of one’s senses. Then there is no rallying from the weakness they produce.’ These symptoms, moreover, were as varied as they were alarmingly strange. ‘When lying in bed, my toes have sometimes curled round and looked me in the face,’ he later recalled.’”

A key theme in the book is The Importance of Courage. This passage provides a firsthand account of one type of danger and difficulty faced by the expedition team: disease. Here, Speke describes one of the illnesses and the respective symptoms. Despite being sick for much of the expedition, Speke continued to travel with the team. Even with tension growing between Speke and Burton, Burton commented in his own writings about Speke’s courage and willingness to continue working regardless of illness.

“‘Forgetting toils, dangers, and the doubtfulness of return,’ [Burton] wrote, ‘I felt willing to endure double what I had endured.’”

This quote captures Burton’s feelings upon seeing Lake Tanganyika for the first time. Burton describes the lake vividly in his writings because he thought he had finally found the source of the Nile River. In claiming he would willingly “endure double what [he] had endured” in the face of his discovery, Burton demonstrates both The Importance of Courage and The Dangers of Obsession, Ignorance, and Arrogance.

“Speke would later insist that, even as he squinted beneath the dark brim of his slouching hat, he immediately knew that he was looking at the source of the White Nile. He had no proof, had not even been within hundreds of miles of the northern stretches of the lake, but he was certain that he was right.”

Speke believed that he, not Burton, found the source of the Nile River. While Burton still thought the source was Lake Tanganyika, Speke believed it was Lake Nyanza. This discovery represents the turning point in the balance of power between Burton and Speke. Prior to this discovery, Burton led the expeditions. However, with this discovery, Speke would soon become leader of his own expedition. The discovery also further deteriorates the relationship between Burton and Speke.

“As he twisted and writhed in pain, Speke fell into a near constant state of delirium. To Burton’s surprise, his babblings became an angry string of accusations against his commander. ‘He let out all his little grievances of fancied wrongs, of which I had not even the remotest idea,’ Burton wrote. [. . .] ‘He was awfully grieved because in the thick of the fight at Berberah, three years before, I had said to him, ‘Don’t step back, or they will think we are running,’ Burton wrote, amazed that the simple words spoken in a moment of extreme peril had so wounded his companion that he had spent years turning them over and over in his mind.”

While Burton and Speke’s relationship remained tense for most of the expedition to Tanganyika, Speke’s bitter rants during his bout with the “little irons” laid bare the extent of his frustration, jealousy, and resentment of Burton. Burton was shocked by these revelations. While he recognized that Speke could be a bit sour, Burton never realized that he twisted his words so thoroughly over the length of their friendship and the effects it would shortly have upon his own life.

“As a great number of friends, both here and in India, have expressed a warm desire to be made acquainted with my late journeyings in Africa, as well as with the social state and general condition of the people whom I found there, I send for publication in your [John Blackwood] Magazine the accompanying Journal, which I kept when traveling alone in Africa.”

Speke, like many other European explorers, ignored the contributions of everyone, including porters, guides, and guards, who made the expedition to Tanganyika possible. Of perhaps some surprise to readers is that Speke did not even acknowledge the key role played by Bombay, despite Speke thinking highly of the man. This behavior is one of the reasons why so many non-European explorers remain unknown. A key tenet for Millard is to highlight some of these non-European guides, porters, and guards, like Bombay, so they do not become lost to history.

“‘He was still…my earthly god and king, and I could have knelt at his feet and worshipped him,’ [Isabel] wrote. ‘I used to like to sit and look at him, and think, ‘You are mine and there is no man on earth the least like you.’”

Although Isabel was extremely religious, she considered Burton her “earthly god and king,” devoting most of her life to him. As part of this devotion, Isabel tried to convert Burton to Catholicism. She was worried about saving his soul, especially as he continued to be fascinated by sex and pornography and to translate risqué books. Despite his refusal, Isabel still gave her husband a Catholic funeral and burned his final translation of a particularly risqué book he was working on prior to his death.

“With Grant, Speke knew, he would never be in danger of having to share the spotlight. ‘I feel I never shall be robbed of the discovery of the Nile,’ he wrote contentedly to Rigby.”

Loyalty represents the main factor that Speke used to decide who he would bring on the trip to Nyanza, while Burton was mostly interested in making sure that the team had the necessary skills and would get along fairly well. Millard never explicitly states that Burton was a superior leader to Speke but she provides examples, including Speke’s focus on loyalty rather than skill and team cohesion, that suggests she believes this to be the case.

“‘The expedition had now performed its functions. I saw that old father Nile without any doubt rises in the Victoria Nyanza, and, as I had foretold, that lake is the great source of the holy river,’ he wrote with satisfaction. ‘I felt I ought to be content with what I had been spared to accomplish; for I had seen full half of the lake, and had information given me of the other half, by means of which I knew all about the lake, as far, at least as the chief objects of geographical importance were concerned.’”

The Royal Geographic Society funded Speke’s trip to Nyanza to prove it was the source of the White Nile. Despite this goal, Speke did not bring the necessary supplies to do so. In fact, he did not even try to sail around the lake and survey it, as Burton intended to do with Tanganyika. Speke was overconfident in the accuracy of his belief about the source of the Nile River. This overconfidence turned to arrogance, which would ultimately be his downfall. When he returned to England, the Society and public remained unhappy with his lack of scientific rigor on the trip.

“Despite all that the island had offered him in inspiration and adventure, he found it oppressive, later admitting that soon after arriving he had been ‘uncommonly suicidal.’ He felt like ‘a caged hawk,’ he wrote, ‘a Prometheus with the Demon Despair gnawing at my heart.’”

Millard documents how Burton could not overcome his depression and anger after his return from East Africa. Despite his bitter rivalry with Speke, Burton still had a number of opportunities. He eventually received a consular appointment, but this did little to ease his sorrows. As Burton admits in the passage quoted here, he continued to feel both restless and seriously depressed after Speke’s betrayal.

“Speke, irritated by these efforts to answer his accusations, regretted not his own actions but that he had ever had any association with Petherick. ‘I wish to God I had never seen the beast,’ he complained, ‘for both he and his wife are writing against me in the most blackguardly style.’”

This passage speaks to The Dangers of Obsession, Ignorance, and Arrogance. Speke never once thought about whether Petherick and his wife would run into issues in their attempt to reach him in East Africa. When Petherick and his wife were late, Speke listened to rumors, believing the two deserted him. Speke poured his resentment for Petherick into his book by recounting baseless rumors that Petherick was involved in the ivory and slave trade. These rumors cost Petherick his job. Speke did not care about this. Instead, he was angry that he had to defend his accusations (which he could not do well). A huge character flaw of Speke’s is that he allowed bitterness to overcome him, which would ultimately ruin his life.

“Watching Speke now, Fuller and Davis both noticed a ‘carelessness in the use of the gun by Hanning.’”

Millard underscores repeatedly how careful Speke is with guns. The above incident at Neston Park represents the first time that Speke handles his gun carelessly. Speke ultimately shoots himself, but it remains unknown whether it was an accident or intentional. Millard seems to suggest that it was an accident (given how careless he was being), but she leaves it up to the readers to interpret the data how they see fit.

“How many ghosts and phantoms start up from the brain—the shreds of hopes destroyed and of aims made futile…How many graves have closed over their dead during those short ten years—the epitome of the past! And when the lessons strikes the head/The weary heart grows cold.”

Burton here reflects upon the changes that have taken place over “those short ten years” of his East African adventures and the fall-out with Speke. His references to “hopes destroyed” and “aims made futile” encapsulate the heavy price he paid for his obsessions.