The Histories

“A well-hidden secret of the principate had been revealed: it was possible, it seemed, for an emperor to be chosen outside Rome.”

The reveal of this “secret” is presented by Tacitus as a key factor that contributed to the chaos in Rome in 69 CE. The lack of central authority allowed provincial leaders to rebel against Rome and try to become emperor, as Galba had. Galba’s precedent demonstrated the possibility of success to Vitellius and Vespasian.

“A substitute for freedom will be that our emperors are starting to be selected. Now that the dynasty of the Julii and Claudii has come to an end, the process of adoption will find the best man for the job.”

Tacitus has Galba make a speech on the need for adoption, through which he seeks to draw a comparison between the situation he describes and the later adoption of Trajan by Nerva. Tacitus expresses the view that an emperor is needed because of the size of the empire and that the lack of liberty must be compensated for by good rule, ensured through adoption. However, as shown by the failure of Piso to secure Galba’s dynasty, it is critical that the adoption is of the right man.

“Neither the sight of the Capitol, nor the sanctity of the temples that looked down upon them, nor the thought of past and future emperors deterred such men from committing a crime which the next ruler-but-one inevitably avenges.”

The murder of Galba by Otho’s troops shows that the normal bounds of respect and authority that would stop actions such as this did not apply. Tacitus also emphasizes how self-destructive these actions were, as they would, in time, be avenged inevitably.

“In any case, there were ambiguous stories about Vespasian—and he was the only emperor up to that point who changed for the better.”

Tacitus’s early description of Vespasian characterizes him as unique among the leaders of The Histories. Vespasian’s ability to improve while being emperor, when most were corrupted by the power, shows his eminent suitability for rule.

“Meanwhile, to everybody’s surprise, Otho did not sink into a lethargic state of hedonism. Pleasures were postponed, indulgence disguised and his entire conduct and adjusted to the high standards expected of a ruler.”

Tacitus comments on Otho’s surprising change in character following Vitellius’s imperial challenge, a change that culminated in Otho’s decision to die by suicide. Tacitus does demonstrate his overall negative opinion of Otho by adding a qualifier to this broadly positive statement.

“They did this neither from fear nor real affection, but as a result of their passionate devotion to servility.”

Throughout The Histories, Tacitus expresses disdain for how the Romans under the principate became too willing to submit to their rulers. This is revealing of his own beliefs, as he prized political participation and liberty as a part of what previously defined Romans. This view is also formed by his aristocratic point of view, which biased him against the lower classes and created the image of them as easily swayable.

“In a very different part of the world fortune was already planning the origins and causes of a new dynasty, which was, with varying lot, happy for the state or terrible, and for the emperors themselves prosperous or deadly.”

This description of the Flavian dynasty is a hint about the analysis in the sections of The Histories that are now missing. Tacitus evidently held a mixed view of the emperors of the Flavian dynasty, and other descriptions show his support for Vespasian and Titus but his hatred of Domitian.

“[M]ilitary obedience and an acceptance of discipline—the only thing that was missing from the Othonian side, since one could not complain about their lack of courage.”

The lack of discipline that Tacitus highlights in the Othonian army is emblematic of a general problem he identifies in the Romans. The instability of their leaders extended to a lack of discipline in the army. Furthermore, Tacitus brings out a similarity in the army of a leader and their personality. Otho, like his soldiers, eventually proved himself brave but was often ill disciplined.

“From time immemorial, humans have had an innate passion for power, but with the growth of the empire it has ripened and run wild.”

Tacitus analyzes a growth in the greed of Romans as their empire grew, showing a nationwide example of the corrupting influence of power. This is argued to be at the root cause of the civil wars, as people’s expectations and passion had grown to the point that they could not be satisfied with inferior statuses.

“By two actions, one utterly appalling, one heroic, he has earned just as much renown as disgrace in the eyes of posterity.”

Tacitus’s epitaph for Otho summarizes his depiction throughout the text. The disparity between his overthrow of Galba and suicide shows the complexity of the figure within the historical events. He alternately killed a ruler to gain power and then died by suicide to end violence.

“Vitellius was becoming more despicable and lazy every day.”

Vitellius’s rapid decline following his victory is one of the clearest examples of the corrupting influence of power. While already depicted as lazy, Tacitus stresses his unsuitability for the imperial office by showing that once he had adopted this, he failed to act in any meaningful way. This is used to strengthen the Flavian claim to the throne, as Tacitus shows it would improve the state.

“Amid the lures of the capital and pursuits too shocking to be descried, they were ruining their physique by idleness and their moral by debauchery.”

The deterioration of the Vitellian army following their defeat of the Othonians is a critical turning point in the book. Before this, the Rhine legions are shown to be an aggressive and vigorous force, but then through indulgence, they became weakened and eventually destroyed by the Flavians, highlighting The Corrupting Influence of Power. This was one of the earliest consequences of Vitellius’s misrule, and Tacitus shows that it led to his own downfall.

“Although Roman soldiers had once competed in courage and discipline, now their rivalry was in insolence and insubordination.”

This quote is demonstrative of the societal upheaval during this period and the change to Roman identity that Tacitus worries about. Soldiers rejected their proper role, which not only threatened the armies in the moment but also was a more existential threat to what it meant to be a Roman.

“Antonius […] snatched a timely victory by forcing an engagement.”

Tacitus stresses the importance of Antonius Primus in winning the Flavians an early victory. His essential role in the rebellion establishes him as an important figure, but following this, Tacitus will show that Primus’s tactical prowess did not mean that he was virtuous. Primus is another example of the complex figures in Rome’s history, who Tacitus focuses on by examining their motives.

“This was the most lamentable and appalling disaster to befall the state of the Roman people since the foundation of the city.”

The destruction of the buildings on Capitoline Hill is a notable event in The Histories because of the impact that Tacitus claims it had. This is presented as, more than any of the battles, the lowest point of the year. It is the most obvious example of the disasters that Tacitus states he will cover in the beginning of the book.

“All the perverse passions associated with a life of luxury went hand-in-hand with whatever criminal acts you would expect during the most pitiless sacking of a city, so much so that you would have thought that the city was in the grip of a simultaneous orgy of violence and pleasure.”

The Flavian conquest of Rome and the chaos that broke out is written as the high-water mark for the Roman instability in 69 CE. All normal boundaries broke down during the “simultaneous orgy of violence and pleasure,” but it was following the Flavians taking charge that stability began to reappear, marking a departure from The Instability and Societal Upheaval Brought by Successive Crises. This was not immediate, and further wars would follow; however, the civil wars ended with this final explosion of extreme violence.

“The Flavian generals had been keen to set the civil war ablaze, but in victory they were incapable of exercising control. The truth is that in times of trouble and discord it is the utter rogues who have the most forceful impact, whereas peace and quiet call for the skills of good men.”

The consequences of Roman civil war and ambition are mentioned several times throughout Book 4 as Tacitus seeks to highlight the difficult process of restoring Roman order. This quote demonstrates how the corrupting influence of power continued to be a factor among many after the end of the war.

“[H]e was already playing the part of an emperor’s son by his rapes and adulteries.”

Tacitus consistently characterizes Domitian as morally reprehensible, laying the groundwork for his later tyrannical reign. Though the section of The Histories that covers this is no longer available, Tacitus’s foreshadowing is clear through this quote.

“The whole appearance was an amalgam of civil and foreign war.”

Tacitus’s struggle to define the Batavian revolt shows the complications in his questioning of Roman identity. Through imperialism and the Roman practice of assimilating subject tribes, the people that were rebelling against Rome were neither foreign nor Roman. This led to Tacitus being unable to create a complete ethnic comparison between the Romans and Batavians.

“The defeated troops adopted the now habitual tactic of blaming their general for treachery rather than themselves for cowardice.”

This quote encapsulates a key issue facing the Romans during this period and one that Tacitus has touched upon frequently. The insubordination of Roman soldiers seems to be endemic to events, causing almost never-ending complaints against leaders. Tacitus here acknowledges that this had become “habitual” and identifies the cause as soldiers trying to avoid blame.

“As for the Senate, it quickly abandoned its newly won freedom of speech as soon as it met with opposition.”

This quote highlights Tacitus’s political priorities, as he expresses disappointment that the Senate failed to exert authority. He promotes the power of his own Senatorial class.

“Throughout Gual there were always despots and wars until you united yourself with us. We ourselves, despite many provocations, imposed upon you by right of conquest only such additional burdens as were required to preserve peace.”

Tacitus places a speech defending the Roman conquest of Gaul into the mouth of the general Cerialis. This is notable, as throughout Tacitus’s work, he expresses many different points of view on the morality of the Roman Empire, including a speech that he claims was made by the British leader Calgacus, which has since become important in anti-imperial messaging.

“Among the Jews everything that we hold sacred is regarded as sacrilegious; on the other hand, they allow things which we consider immoral.”

This quote is demonstrative of Tacitus’s complete “otherizing” of the Jewish rebels. This serves a larger literary purpose than simply perpetuating prejudice, however, as Tacitus uses the Jewish people to reconstruct Roman identity through showing its opposite. This reconstruction of Roman identity is very important following the civil wars and confused Batavian revolt, highlighting the theme of Roman Identity in the Principate.