40 pages • 1 hour read
Louise LevathesWhen China Ruled the Seas
Nonfiction | Biography | Adult | Published in 1994A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.
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BetaChapters 4-6Chapter Summaries & Analyses
Chapter 4 Summary: “The Treasure Fleet”
Levathes details the construction of Zhu Di’s ships that came to be known as the “treasure fleet,” built at a pair of shipyards in Nanjing called Longjiang. In early 1403, only a year after he claimed the throne as the Yongle Emperor, Zhu Di ordered a huge project of shipbuilding that would entail the resources of the entire empire. As Levathes writes, “A frenzy of shipbuilding activity followed from 1404 to 1407, with the construction or refitting of over 1,681 ships” (76). Timber was sent from a number of provinces as craftsmen from Fujian moved to Nanjing.
The design of the treasure ships, the largest vessels in the fleet, were a combination of ships called shachuan, from the Yangzi delta region, and fuchuan, from Fujian. The latter were better suited for deep, open-ocean sailing and featured several elements for added stability, such as a keel running the length of the hull. In keeping with the emperor’s idea of grandeur, the ships were enormous, with four decks, nine masts, and 12 sails. Their exact size is unknown because the unit of measure used, the chi, varied from a minimum of nine and a half inches to more than a foot. In all likelihood, they were about 400 feet long and 160 feet wide, “one of the largest wooden sailing ships ever built anywhere in the world” (80).
Other ships smaller in size included supply, horse, and troop ships, as well as various warships. A large and diverse crew was needed to ensure all functions of the fleet, from repairs to diplomatic affairs. The top leaders, including those overseeing the military commanders, were all eunuchs. Included were astrologers and geomancers for navigation and weather prediction, interpreters of various languages, and medical staff. Finally, quantities of silk and porcelain were stowed for trading.
Chapter 5 Summary: “Destination: Calicut”
In the fall of 1405, the first voyage of the treasure fleet set sail. Levathes writes that “317 brightly painted junks with a total crew of more than 27,000 men” left Nanjing to begin the journey to India (87). The night before they left, the crew met at a banquet and made offerings to Tianfei, the goddess of sailors, to whom they prayed for a safe voyage. They made their way down the Yangzi River to the sea and down the coast to Fujian, where they waited weeks for favorable winds to cross the South China Sea.
They stopped in Champa in present-day Vietnam, Sumatra, Java, and Ceylon—now Sri Lanka—before reaching their main destination of Calicut, a center of the spice trade. After several months there, the fleet began its journey home in early 1407. In the Strait of Malacca, they encountered and fought a pirate from Guangzhou, Chen Zuyi, emerging victorious. Despite Chen’s strength, the Ming warships had too much firepower of their own, including a variety of bomb-like devices and archers who could quickly disable a boat with flaming arrows.
Attributing their survival to Tianfei, the sailors also endured a bad storm in the South China Sea. As a result, upon reaching Nanjing, the emperor bestowed upon the goddess an honorary title. Meanwhile, Zheng worked to expand the temple to the goddess in Fujian. The expedition was such a success that the emperor immediately ordered a second voyage for later that year. This voyage only included 68 ships, and Zheng remained in China this time.
Chapter 6 Summary: “The Strange Kingdoms of Malacca and Ceylon”
From 1409 to 1411, Zheng He commanded a third voyage. This trip focused on visits to Malacca and Ceylon, with stops as well in Siam in present-day Thailand, Sumatra, and several cities in India. Founded by Parameswara, Malacca soon became important as both a trading post and the gateway to the Indian Ocean. The Chinese recognized it as an independent state, partly to keep in check the power of neighboring states Siam and Java. Zheng He would later establish an area of warehouses and granaries in Malacca where goods could be stored and picked up on return to China.
In Ceylon, Zheng He planned to present the king with a tablet inscribed in three languages and directed to three religions: Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam. The author attributes the cold reception he received on the first voyage to the fact that the Chinese had not properly noted the country’s multiple religions. However, this time the reception was even worse; a local leader rejected the tablet,, paid no tribute to the emperor, and drove Zheng and his men back to their ships. It was not the rightful king who did this but a powerful military leader named Alakeswara, who sought to take full power over the state for himself.
After a stop in India, the Ming fleet returned to Ceylon on its way home, with Zheng intending to teach them a lesson for their disrespect. The details of what happened next is unclear, but the Chinese defeated an enemy force and took either Alakeswara or the legitimate ruler back to Nanjing, where the emperor dealt with the matter. Ultimately, the emperor returned this person to Ceylon, which became a tribute state of China.
After this third voyage, the Chinese emperor had sufficient funds to build an opulent pagoda in memory of his mother. Made of porcelain tiles and standing nine stories high, the tower and its surrounding complex took 20 years to complete and was later regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
Chapters 4-6 Analysis
These three chapters describe the early years of the treasure fleet expeditions, from the building of the fleet through the first three voyages. The author details the construction of the ships to show both what a nationwide effort it was, with men and material sent from all over China, and how advanced the Chinese were in terms of shipbuilding. This latter point is indirectly contrasted with the Europeans, who were far behind in technology and know-how. Though Levathes does not make a direct comparison here, she mentions throughout the book how far ahead the Chinese were during this period. Just in terms of the size of the ships alone—400-foot treasure ships versus Vasco da Gama’s 100-foot ships almost a century later—the Chinese feat is impressive.
This section also provides a glimpse of the aggressive mercantile capitalism—or “war capitalism,” as it is termed by scholars like Sven Beckert—that would flourish in the 16th century. When the local warlord in Ceylon refused to trade with the Chinese, Zheng attacked his troops and captured either the warlord or the rightful ruler. These coerced trade arrangements, accomplished through the subjugation and colonization of far-flung civilizations, would be perfected in the coming centuries by Europeans, most dramatically by the British East India Company. Yet Levathes argues that China, though largely isolationist during the period of British Sea Power, pioneered these bloody tactics.
Likewise, the author describes the voyages in detail to give a sense of their geographical range as well as the broad scope of their mission. More than just trading expeditions, they encompassed delicate diplomacy and, when necessary, brutal military force. On the emperor’s command, Zheng He recognized the small state of Malacca to prevent two of its larger neighboring states from becoming too powerful, thus maintaining the regional balance of power. Zheng also defeated a powerful pirate in the area despite the fact that his fleet was primarily a trading armada, not a military armada. In Ceylon, Zheng showed his keen tactician’s mind when faced with the overwhelming strength of the Ceylon troops sent to detain his ships. With so many soldiers amassed at the harbor, he figured, the capital city must have been left lightly guarded. He slipped away with a force of his own and captured Alakeswara, ending the threat.
