Where Good Ideas Come From

Johnson explores the concept of innovation through various historical examples and scientific theories. He begins by recounting the story of Stephane Tarnier, a 19th-century Parisian obstetrician who developed an incubator for premature infants after observing chicken incubators at a zoo. This invention significantly reduced infant mortality rates in Paris, with a study of 500 babies showing that the mortality rate for low-weight infants decreased from 66% to 38% when using the incubator. The success of Tarnier’s device led to the widespread adoption of incubators in maternity hospitals across Paris and inspired similar exhibitions and implementations worldwide.

Johnson then discusses the challenges of implementing modern incubators in developing countries, where complex medical equipment often breaks down due to a lack of maintenance expertise and replacement parts. This is not a rare issue; studies suggest up to 95% of medical technology donated to developing countries breaks within five years. Johnson discusses the NeoNurture device, an incubator designed by Timothy Prostero’s team at Design That Matters. Inspired by Boston doctor Jonathan Rosen’s observation that even small towns in developing countries could keep automobiles running, the NeoNurture was built using car parts. This innovative approach addressed the need for a more reliable and easily repairable incubator in resource-limited settings, utilizing locally available parts and knowledge of automobile repair.

Johnson uses these examples to introduce the concept of the “adjacent possible,” a term coined by Stuart Kauffman. This idea describes the potential for innovation based on existing components and knowledge. Johnson explains how the adjacent possible applies to both biological evolution and human innovation, emphasizing that new ideas are often recombinations of existing elements rather than completely novel inventions. Johnson likens the adjacent possible to a house that expands with each door opened, representing how innovations create opportunities for further advancements. He argues that this concept applies across various fields, from the evolution of life to technological progress and cultural development.

The chapter delves into the history of life on Earth, discussing how simple molecules in the primordial environment combined to form more complex structures, eventually leading to the diversity of life forms observed today. Johnson explains how the early Earth’s atmosphere contained basic molecules like ammonia, methane, water, and carbon dioxide, which could form finite combinations. These initial combinations, such as the formation of cell-like membranes from fatty acids, opened up new possibilities for further complexity. The author draws parallels between this biological evolution and the development of human ideas and inventions, suggesting that both natural and cultural innovations follow a similar pattern of exploring and expanding the adjacent possible.

The author explores the phenomenon of multiple independent discoveries in science and technology, citing numerous examples where similar innovations were made by different individuals around the same time. Johnson attributes this to the concept of the adjacent possible, suggesting that when the necessary components and knowledge are available, multiple people may arrive at similar conclusions.

Johnson then discusses Charles Babbage’s work on two of his inventions, the Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine, in the 19th century. While the difference engine was within the realm of possibility for its time, the analytical engine was too advanced for the available technology, illustrating how some ideas can be ahead of their time and outside the adjacent possible.

The chapter concludes by emphasizing the importance of exploring the edges of possibility in various fields and environments. Johnson suggests that innovative environments are those that expose individuals to a diverse range of components and encourage novel recombinations. He uses the example of the Apollo 13 mission to illustrate how problem-solving often involves working with available resources to create new solutions. The Apollo 13 anecdote illustrates how NASA engineers, faced with a life-threatening carbon dioxide buildup in the spacecraft, improvised a solution using only the limited materials available to the astronauts, demonstrating the power of innovation within constraints.

Johnson argues that all individuals and organizations have their own versions of the adjacent possible and that innovation can occur in various contexts, from scientific breakthroughs to improvements in teaching methods or marketing strategies. He encourages readers to explore the boundaries of possibility in their own environments and to seek out diverse “spare parts” that can be recombined into new ideas.

Johnson explores the concept of “liquid networks” as a fundamental environment for innovation and the generation of ideas. He begins by discussing various metaphors commonly used to describe moments of insight but argues that these fail to capture the true nature of ideas—as networks of neurons firing in new patterns.

The author emphasizes two key preconditions for idea formation: A densely populated network (such as the human brain, with its trillions of neuronal connections) and plasticity that allows for new configurations. Johnson then draws parallels between neural networks and other innovative systems, particularly focusing on the origins of life.

He discusses the importance of carbon atoms in forming complex molecules necessary for life, citing their unique connective properties. The author describes the Miller-Urey experiment, which simulated early Earth conditions to demonstrate how organic compounds could form spontaneously. Johnson emphasizes the role of liquid water as a medium facilitating these chemical interactions and the emergence of life.

Johnson suggests that innovative systems tend to gravitate toward a balance between order and chaos, which he likens to the properties of liquids. Applying this concept to human history, the author proposes that the rise of agriculture and the formation of the first cities created conditions analogous to liquid networks, leading to a surge in innovation. He presents a timeline of human inventions, noting a dramatic increase in the rate of innovation following the emergence of urban settlements.

Johnson then discusses the Renaissance in northern Italy as another example of how dense urban networks facilitated innovation. He explores the relationship between capitalism and innovation, using the development of double-entry accounting as an example of collective innovation emerging from merchant networks.

The author critiques earlier studies of scientific breakthroughs, particularly Arthur Koestler’s The Act of Creation, for focusing too narrowly on individual minds rather than the environments that foster innovation. Johnson highlights Kevin Dunbar’s research, which involved observing scientists in their natural work environments. Dunbar’s findings emphasized the importance of group interactions, particularly regular lab meetings, in generating breakthrough ideas.

The chapter concludes by examining how physical work environments can be designed to encourage the formation of liquid networks. Johnson discusses various approaches to office design, from open-plan layouts to more flexible, modular spaces like MIT’s Building 20 and Microsoft’s Building 99. These examples illustrate how architectural design can facilitate the flow of information and ideas within organizations.

Throughout the chapter, Johnson reinforces the idea that innovation thrives in environments that balance structure with flexibility, allowing for the free flow and mixing of ideas across different domains and disciplines.